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  • 1 окончательное извещение

    Русско-английский словарь по патентам и товарным знакам > окончательное извещение

  • 2 окончательное извещение

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > окончательное извещение

  • 3 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 4 nadie

    pron.
    nobody, no one.
    nadie lo sabe nobody knows
    no se lo dije a nadie I didn't tell anybody
    no ha llamado nadie nobody phoned
    * * *
    1 nobody, not... anybody
    ■ ¿nadie quiere más pastel? doesn't anybody want any more cake?
    \
    ser un don nadie to be a nobody
    * * *
    pron.
    * * *
    PRON
    1) (=ninguna persona) [verbo inglés en afirmativo] nobody, no one; [verbo inglés en negativo] anybody, anyone

    nadie lo tiene, no lo tiene nadie — nobody has it

    nadie más — nobody else, no one else

    no lo sabe nadie más que tú — nobody else knows, apart from you, nobody but you knows

    2) (=persona insignificante)
    * * *
    pronombre nobody, no one
    * * *
    = no one, nobody.
    Ex. No one complained about Duff to her, and she decided not to probe for discontents.
    Ex. Unfortunately, the basic problem was to get the file cleaned up in a hurry, and nobody was particularly concerned with research.
    ----
    * a nadie le importa nada = nobody + gives a damn.
    * hacerlo sin la ayuda de nadie = do + it + on + Posesivo + own.
    * nadie es profeta en su tierra = no man is a prophet in his own land.
    * nadie está contento con lo que tiene = the grass is (always) greener on the other side (of the fence).
    * nadie excepto = no one but.
    * nadie más = nobody else.
    * nadie notaría la diferencia = no one would be the wiser.
    * nadie + saber = be anyone's guess.
    * nadie sino = no one but.
    * ¡ni una palabra a nadie! = not a word to anyone!.
    * no decir nada a nadie, ser una tumba = lips + seal.
    * no revelar nada a nadie = lips + seal.
    * sin ayuda de nadie = all by + Reflexivo, by + Reflexivo.
    * sin la ayuda de nadie = single-handed, single-handedly.
    * tierra de nadie = twilight zone, wilderness, no-man's land.
    * * *
    pronombre nobody, no one
    * * *
    = no one, nobody.

    Ex: No one complained about Duff to her, and she decided not to probe for discontents.

    Ex: Unfortunately, the basic problem was to get the file cleaned up in a hurry, and nobody was particularly concerned with research.
    * a nadie le importa nada = nobody + gives a damn.
    * hacerlo sin la ayuda de nadie = do + it + on + Posesivo + own.
    * nadie es profeta en su tierra = no man is a prophet in his own land.
    * nadie está contento con lo que tiene = the grass is (always) greener on the other side (of the fence).
    * nadie esta contento con su suerte = the grass is (always) greener on the other side (of the fence).
    * nadie excepto = no one but.
    * nadie más = nobody else.
    * nadie notaría la diferencia = no one would be the wiser.
    * nadie + saber = be anyone's guess.
    * nadie sino = no one but.
    * ¡ni una palabra a nadie! = not a word to anyone!.
    * no decir nada a nadie, ser una tumba = lips + seal.
    * no revelar nada a nadie = lips + seal.
    * sin ayuda de nadie = all by + Reflexivo, by + Reflexivo.
    * sin la ayuda de nadie = single-handed, single-handedly.
    * tierra de nadie = twilight zone, wilderness, no-man's land.

    * * *
    [ Grammar notes (Spanish) ] nobody, no-one
    nadie me ayudó or no me ayudó nadie nobody helped me
    no vi a nadie I didn't see anybody
    no hay nadie there's nobody at home o nobody in
    se fue sin que nadie se diera cuenta he left without anyone noticing
    toca el arpa como nadie he's a brilliant harpist
    don2 (↑ don (2))
    * * *

     

    nadie pronombre
    nobody, no one;

    no vi a nadie I didn't see anybody;
    sin que nadie se diera cuenta without anyone noticing
    nadie pron
    1 (ninguna persona) no-one, nobody: nadie quiere más, no-one wants more
    (con otro negativo) nadie dirá nada, no one will say anything
    no quiere a nadie, she doesn't love anyone
    2 (interrogativas) ¿qué le importa a nadie lo que hago?, who cares about what I do? 3 se cree más listo que nadie, he thinks he's more clever than anyone
    sin que nadie lo oyese, without anyone hearing
    casi nadie, hardly anyone
    ♦ Locuciones: ser un don nadie, to be a nobody

    ' nadie' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    amor
    - aparte
    - casarse
    - casi
    - contra
    - daño
    - demanda
    - don
    - encargarse
    - encierro
    - incapaz
    - misteriosamente
    - ninguna
    - ninguno
    - nunca
    - permitirse
    - redondez
    - regalar
    - reparar
    - respaldar
    - sanctasanctórum
    - sino
    - socorrer
    - suceder
    - suerte
    - tierra
    - absolutamente
    - acudir
    - ayuda
    - comprender
    - contar
    - contestar
    - convencer
    - creer
    - distinción
    - especial
    - hacer
    - humillar
    - impedir
    - mandar
    - más
    - objeción
    - pasar
    - responsable
    - superar
    - vivo
    English:
    about
    - accountable
    - anybody
    - bat
    - be
    - besides
    - confidential
    - deaf
    - definitive
    - destroy
    - divulge
    - ecological
    - else
    - hardly
    - hat
    - hold
    - hypnotize
    - least
    - let on
    - no man's land
    - nobody
    - none
    - nonentity
    - opposition
    - pipsqueak
    - private
    - single-handed
    - slip into
    - soul
    - spare
    - unconvincing
    - whatever
    - work out
    - answerable
    - around
    - claim
    - ever
    - grass
    - ideally
    - in
    - name
    - needless
    - no-man's land
    - not
    - notice
    - own
    - place
    - single
    - speak
    - tell
    * * *
    ♦ pron
    nobody, no one;
    nadie lo sabe nobody o no one knows;
    no se lo dije a nadie I didn't tell anybody o anyone;
    no vi a nadie I didn't see anybody o anyone;
    llamé a la puerta pero no había nadie I knocked on the door but there was nobody o no one in;
    no ha llamado nadie nobody phoned
    ♦ nm
    un don nadie a nobody
    * * *
    pron nobody, no-one;
    no había nadie there was nobody there, there wasn’t anyone there;
    no hablé con nadie I didn’t speak to anybody, I spoke to no-one;
    un don nadie fam a nonentity, a nobody
    * * *
    nadie pron
    : nobody, no one
    no vi a nadie: I didn't see anyone
    * * *
    nadie pron nobody / no one / not... anybody

    Spanish-English dictionary > nadie

  • 5 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, France
    d. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France
    [br]
    French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.
    [br]
    Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.
    By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.
    During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.
    Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.
    In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.
    Bibliography
    1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).
    The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.
    Further Reading
    "Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.
    L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

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